National Seminar Workshop - IKS and English studies

 

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Learning Outcome National Seminar & Workshop on
IKS and English Studies

📅 23–24 March, 2026 🎓 Two-Day National Seminar ✍ Written by Kumkum Hirani

Participating in the National Seminar on Indian Knowledge Systems (IKS) and English Studies was one of the most intellectually transformative academic experiences I have encountered so far. Spread across two vibrant days — 23 and 24 March 2026 — the seminar brought together eminent scholars whose plenary sessions opened entirely new ways of thinking about literature, language, translation, feminism, and the decolonisation of English Studies in India.

Day One

Inauguration & Plenary Sessions

23 March, 2026  |  Inaugural Ceremony followed by three Plenary Lectures

Plenary Session — I

Prof. Dushyant Nimavat
IKS as an Alternative Research Methodology

Prof. Nimavat opened the academic discussions by arguing that Indian Knowledge Systems must be treated as a plural and diverse body of knowledge, not as a single unified system. He insisted the discourse around IKS must move away from debates of cultural superiority and instead become a rigorous, evidence-based academic inquiry.

One of his most powerful historical arguments was a reference to Dharampal's The Beautiful Tree, which demonstrates that pre-colonial India had a rich and sophisticated educational system — one largely undermined by colonial narratives rather than genuine intellectual critique.

He also drew upon Linda Tuhiwai Smith's Decolonizing Methodologies to argue for the development of indigenous research tools — frameworks capable of producing knowledge that Western academic benchmarks frequently miss or misread.

A key takeaway was his critique of Western literary theories: applying frameworks such as feminism or psychoanalytic criticism to Indian and regional texts without accounting for cultural specificity leads to misinterpretation. He connected this critique directly to the goals of NEP 2020, which encourages integrating Indian intellectual heritage into mainstream education.

Key Learnings

• IKS should complement, not replace, Western research methodologies.
• Post-independence India missed the opportunity to redesign its educational framework on indigenous lines.
• Cultural specificity is essential when applying literary theory to non-Western texts.
• Researchers must investigate claims about pre-colonial India critically, through evidence.

Decolonisation NEP 2020 Linda Tuhiwai Smith Dharampal Interdisciplinary Research

Plenary Session — II

Dr. Kalyani Vallath
The Thinai System: Dravidian Poetics as Global Literary Theory

Dr. Vallath introduced the audience to the richness of classical Tamil poetics, specifically the Tolkappiyam and Sangam literature, and made a compelling case for their integration into English literary studies. Her central argument: knowledge should never be compartmentalised; Indian literary and cultural traditions must be studied as interconnected wholes.

She explained the Thinai system — an ancient framework that maps landscape, emotion, ecology, and human experience onto literary form. Tamil literature organises experience into two spheres: Akam (inner/personal world) and Puram (outer/public world).

The five Thinai landscapes — Kurinji (union), Mullai (patient waiting), Marudam (infidelity/conflict), Neithal (longing), and Palai (separation/hardship) — each correspond to a specific emotional condition, weaving ecology and feeling into an inseparable poetic grammar.

Dr. Vallath demonstrated that these frameworks are not confined to ancient Tamil texts. She drew comparisons with Rasa Theory, Romanticism, Symbolism, Modernism, Ecocriticism, and Northrop Frye's archetypal criticism, arguing that the Thinai system can serve as a powerful ecological and comparative literary theory contributing meaningfully to global poetics and environmental humanities.

Key Learnings

• Dravidian literary aesthetics offer sophisticated models for ecological and emotional literary mapping.
• Thinai bridges ancient Indian poetics and contemporary Ecocriticism.
• Indian aesthetic traditions are as analytically rigorous as Western literary theories.
• Comparative literary analysis gains depth when Indian frameworks are brought into dialogue with Western ones.

Thinai System Tolkappiyam Akam / Puram Sangam Literature Ecocriticism Rasa Theory

Plenary Session — III

Dr. Kalyan Chattopadhyay
Rethinking English Studies: IKS as Pedagogical Framework

Dr. Chattopadhyay focused on the historical and structural problem of English Studies in India. Since English education was introduced under Macaulay's colonial educational policy with the explicit aim of producing Indians who would think and act in accordance with British values, the discipline has remained disproportionately dependent on Eurocentric theories and texts.

He critiqued this model using Paulo Freire's concept of the "banking model of education" — a passive system in which teachers deposit knowledge into students rather than fostering critical inquiry. His proposed alternative was not cosmetic: IKS must function as actual alternative analytical and pedagogical frameworks, not merely decorative additions to a syllabus.

He proposed that Nyaya can enable logical textual inference; Vedanta can illuminate metaphysical and existential dimensions of literary characters; Rasa Theory can provide a nuanced framework for aesthetic experience; and Dhvani Theory can deepen the study of implied meaning and suggestion in literary language — offering these as intellectual equals to Western critical theories like deconstruction or psychoanalysis.

Importantly, he championed a dialogic pedagogy inspired by the question-and-answer structure of the Bhagavad Gita — one that replaces rote memorization with active debate, questioning, and engagement.

Key Learnings

• English Studies in India is still shaped by colonial intellectual foundations.
• IKS frameworks — Nyaya, Vedanta, Rasa, Dhvani — are valid and rigorous critical tools.
• Curriculum redesign must include comparative study of Indian and Western theories.
• Integration of IKS must be intellectually rigorous, not symbolic tokenism.

Macaulay's Policy Paulo Freire Nyaya Dhvani Theory Bhagavad Gita Pedagogy Decolonial English Studies

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Day Two

Four Plenary Sessions — Expanding the Frontiers

24 March, 2026  |  Indian Philosophy, Language, Translation & Feminist Theory

Plenary Session — IV

Dr. Ashok Sachdeva
Indian Philosophy and Its Influence on British & American Literature

Dr. Sachdeva made a sweeping and persuasive argument: Indian philosophical concepts — Vedanta, Maya, Karma, Moksha, Detachment, Reincarnation, and Spiritual Unity — exercised a profound and direct influence on British and American literary traditions. This influence became prominent during the Oriental Renaissance, when Sanskrit texts such as the Bhagavad Gita and the Upanishads were translated into English and became available to Western scholars.

He demonstrated these influences through specific writers: William Wordsworth's spiritual view of nature reflects Vedantic and yogic ideas; Shelley's poetry echoes Maya and Karma; T. S. Eliot drew deeply on Indian philosophy in The Waste Land and Four Quartets; and W. B. Yeats absorbed ideas of reincarnation and cyclic time. American transcendentalists — Emerson, Thoreau, and Whitman — were similarly shaped by Indian thought.

His most striking comparative reading was between Hamlet and Arjuna: both are princes paralysed by moral and psychological dilemmas, torn between duty and emotion. Arjuna receives the spiritual guidance of Krishna and resolves his crisis; Hamlet, lacking such guidance, meets a tragic end. Indian philosophy can thus be applied productively to Western canonical texts.

Key Learnings

• Indian philosophy is not peripheral but foundational to British and American literary thought.
• The Oriental Renaissance was a pivotal moment of East-West intellectual exchange.
• Comparative readings of Indian and Western literary figures reveal shared philosophical concerns.
• IKS frameworks can enrich the study of canonical Western texts, not just Indian ones.

Oriental Renaissance Vedanta T. S. Eliot Hamlet vs. Arjuna American Transcendentalism

Plenary Session — V

Prof. Atanu Bhattacharya
Language, Knowledge, and the Holistic Indian Pedagogical Tradition

Prof. Bhattacharya challenged a foundational assumption of modern education: that language is primarily a tool of communication. In Indian traditions, he argued, language was always a producer of knowledge. Knowledge emerged through the interpretation of language; meaning and language were inseparable.

He rejected the idea that Indian intellectual tradition experienced any historical "break." Instead, knowledge flowed continuously (dhara/parampara), from ancient Sanskrit through Bhakti literature into regional literary cultures. He placed Sanskrit at the centre of this tradition, noting that even regional literary cultures developed in dialogue with it.

His analysis of Panini's Ashtadhyayi was revelatory: Panini's grammar is not merely technical but social — it records real-world linguistic variation and is generative and computational in character, anticipating aspects of modern linguistic theories like Chomsky's generative grammar.

He then traced how colonial institutions, especially Fort William College, reduced language to a practical administrative tool, separating theoretical and practical learning, discouraging multilingualism and translation, and disconnecting language from knowledge and culture. Traditional Indian language education — holistic, multilingual, interpretive, and knowledge-centred — was systematically undermined.

Key Learnings

• In Indian tradition, language and knowledge are co-constitutive — not separable.
• Panini's grammar is a sophisticated, socially aware, generative system.
• Narratives and literary texts were central to language education in pre-colonial India.
• Colonial language education weakened multilingualism and the knowledge-producing function of language.

Panini's Ashtadhyayi Dhara / Parampara Fort William College Language as Knowledge Sanskrit Tradition Multilingualism

Plenary Session — VI

Prof. Sachin Ketkar
Translation as Knowledge Creation: Rethinking Equivalence

Prof. Ketkar opened with a disarming observation: most Indians cannot access foundational IKS texts — the Vedas, Upanishads, Panini — in their original languages. Translation, therefore, is not optional but existential for the survival and transmission of Indian intellectual traditions.

His central theoretical contribution was a critique of the myth of exact equivalence. Many cultural terms — dharma, guru, jalebi, sari — have no exact equivalents even across Indian languages. The insistence on finding perfect equivalence, he argued, is itself a colonial inheritance, not an indigenous Indian understanding of translation.

Through examples of Sri Aurobindo (whose Vedic translations reinterpret the texts spiritually to counter Orientalist readings) and A. K. Ramanujan (whose translations adapt Indian literary texts into modernist English shaped by his own poetic sensibility), Ketkar showed that every translation is ideologically situated and historically contingent.

He concluded that translation is not a secondary or inferior copy of an original but an act of semiotic transformation, cultural production, and knowledge creation. Meaning is always shaped by time, community, and interpretation — which is precisely why the study of multiple translations of the same text is intellectually richer than seeking a single "correct" reading.

Key Learnings

• Translation is central to preserving and transmitting Indian Knowledge Systems.
• The demand for exact equivalence is a colonial assumption, not an indigenous one.
• Every translation reflects the ideological and cultural position of the translator.
• Studying how meaning shifts across translations is a productive scholarly methodology.

Translation Studies Sri Aurobindo A. K. Ramanujan Semiotic Transformation Cultural Production Colonial Equivalence Myth

Plenary Session — VII

Dr. Amrita Das
Reclaiming Divine Femininity Through Irigaray and Hindu Goddess Traditions

Dr. Das's lecture was among the most intellectually audacious of the seminar. Her paper — "Reclaiming the Divine Femininity of Indian Women through the French Theoretical Lens of Luce Irigaray" — demonstrated how Hindu goddess traditions can be read through postmodern feminist theory to construct a robust framework for women's subjectivity and empowerment.

She pointed out a significant contrast: while Western religious traditions largely lack a strong feminine divine presence, Hinduism offers rich representations of female divinity through goddess worship. Drawing on Irigaray's ideas of divine femininity, self-love, breathing, and maternal genealogy, she argued that the spiritual power embedded in Hindu goddess worship enables women to reclaim personal and cultural autonomy.

She connected these theoretical frameworks to contemporary literary works: Nikita Gill's The Girl and the Goddess and Smriti Dewan's Urmila: The Forgotten Princess — showing how modern Indian women writers use goddess figures and mythology to represent female bonding, maternal lineage, and spiritual empowerment.

Her conclusion was powerful: the Hindu goddess tradition offers an alternative feminist framework in which women are not passive figures but spiritually and culturally empowered beings. Through Irigaray's lens, divine femininity enables a rethinking of women's identity, body, and transcendence beyond patriarchal structures.

Key Learnings

• Hindu goddess traditions provide a rich, non-Western feminist theoretical resource.
• IKS and Western theory (here, Irigaray) can be productively brought into dialogue.
• Contemporary women writers actively use mythology to assert female subjectivity.
• Breathing, air, and maternal genealogy function as metaphors for women's transcendence in both systems.

Luce Irigaray Hindu Goddess Tradition Divine Femininity Nikita Gill Smriti Dewan Postmodern Feminism

Overall Reflection

What This Seminar Taught Me

Across both days, a single, powerful argument emerged from every session: Indian Knowledge Systems are not relics of the past but living, generative intellectual frameworks capable of enriching every dimension of literary and linguistic study — from research methodology and classroom pedagogy to feminist theory, translation studies, and comparative poetics.

What struck me most was the courage of these scholars to challenge the intellectual complacency of our discipline — the unquestioned assumption that Western theory is the default language of literary analysis. The seminar made clear that the study of English literature in India need not be an act of cultural ventriloquism. It can, and must, be an act of creative intellectual sovereignty.

I left this seminar with not only new frameworks — Thinai, Dhvani, Rasa, Nyaya, Translation as knowledge creation — but also with a renewed sense of purpose as a scholar. If IKS is to make a lasting contribution to English Studies, it will require precisely the kind of rigorous, comparative, and intellectually honest engagement that every speaker in this seminar modelled.

01

Understood IKS as plural, diverse, and complementary to Western research — not superior or inferior, but different and necessary.

02

Gained working knowledge of Thinai, Rasa, Dhvani, Nyaya, and Vedanta as tools for literary criticism and pedagogical design.

03

Recognised translation not as equivalence-finding but as an ideologically situated act of knowledge creation and cultural production.

04

Developed a critical awareness of how colonial education systems continue to shape English Studies in India — and what decolonisation might actually mean in practice.

05

Discovered the profound influence of Indian philosophy — Vedanta, Karma, Moksha — on British and American literary traditions, from Wordsworth and Eliot to Emerson and Whitman.

06

Found a new feminist framework in the dialogue between Hindu goddess traditions and Irigaray's postmodern feminism — broadening the scope of gender studies in literature.

Written by Kumkum Hirani  |  National Seminar on IKS & English Studies  |  23–24 March 2026

A Learning Outcome Blog  ·  Kumkum Hirani's Academic Journal

208: Cultural Untranslatability and the Ethics of Translation: A Reading of A.K. Ramanujan in Dialogue with Niranjana, Devy, and Venuti

 

Cultural Untranslatability and the Ethics of Translation: A Reading of A.K. Ramanujan in Dialogue with Niranjana, Devy, and Venuti

Assignment of Paper Paper 208: Comparative Literature & Translation Studies

Academic Details

• Name: Krupali Belam

• Roll No : 13

• Enrollment No : 5108240007

• Semester: 4

• Batch: 2024–26

• Email: krupalibelam1204@gmail.com

Assignment Details

• Paper Name: Contemporary Literatures in English 

• Paper No.: 208

• Paper Code: 22413

• Topic: Comparative Literature & Translation Studies

• Submitted To: Smt. Sujata Binoy Gardi, Department of English, Maharaja Krishnakumarsinhji Bhavnagar University

• Submission Date: 30 March 2026

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Abstract
2. Introduction: The Problem That Will Not Be Solved

3. The Tinai System: When Landscape Is a Language

4. Ramanujan's Double Position: Insider and Outsider

5. Niranjana: The Politics Behind the Impossibility

6. Devy: The Necessity of an Indian Translation Theory

7. Venuti: The Ethics of Making Foreignness Visible

8. The Counterargument: Is Untranslatability the Final Word?

9. Conclusion: What Comparative Literature Must Learn?

10. Works Cited

Keywords: cultural untranslatability, tinai system, postcolonial translation, foreignization, comparative literature, translation ethics

Research Questions

1. How does the tinai system in classical Sangam poetry demonstrate that cultural untranslatability is an epistemological condition rather than a mere linguistic problem?

2. In what ways do postcolonial and ethical frameworks, as theorized by Niranjana, Devy, and Venuti, reframe the translator’s responsibility when rendering culturally embedded texts into English?

Hypothesis

This essay proceeds on the hypothesis that cultural untranslatability, as evidenced in A.K. Ramanujan’s engagement with Tamil Sangam poetry, is not a technical failure of translation but a structural and ethical condition inherent to all cross-cultural literary exchange. It is further hypothesized that acknowledging this condition rather than attempting to resolve it constitutes a more honest and productive framework for comparative literature, particularly in a globalized context where dominant languages risk erasing minority literary traditions.

Abstract

This essay examines A.K. Ramanujan’s “On Translating a Tamil Poem” (1999) as a site where cultural untranslatability emerges not as a linguistic inconvenience but as a deeper epistemological and ethical crisis. Using classical Sangam poetry’s tinai system a symbolic landscape-code in which geography encodes emotion Ramanujan demonstrates that translation is never the mere transfer of words between languages; it is the attempted crossing of entire cultural competences. This essay argues that his translator’s dilemma reveals a structural condition of all cross-cultural reading that comparative literature must confront seriously. The argument unfolds in dialogue with Tejaswini Niranjana’s postcolonial critique in Siting Translation (1992), G.N. Devy’s theorization of Indian translation consciousness in In Another Tongue (1993), Susan Bassnett’s disciplinary intervention in Comparative Literature: A Critical Introduction (1993), and Lawrence Venuti’s ethics of foreignization in The Translator’s Invisibility (1995). It also engages the counterargument, advanced by Vinay Dharwadker, that Ramanujan’s practice is ultimately more optimistic than a reading centered on loss suggests. The essay concludes that untranslatability is not a failure of method but a productive epistemological condition one that exposes colonial power relations, demands ethical translation practice, and reframes the mission of comparative literature in a multilingual, globalized world.

1. Introduction: The Problem That Will Not Be Solved

At the opening of “On Translating a Tamil Poem,” A.K. Ramanujan invokes Robert Frost’s well-known remark that poetry is what is lost in translation, then offers his own formulation: “The chief difficulty of translation is its impossibility” (23). The sentence functions as a paradox from which Ramanujan refuses to retreat. He accepts the premise of impossibility and, remarkably, continues translating. What results is not a surrender but a practice a series of attempts, revisions, and meditations that together expose a truth more significant than any single “successful” translation could convey.

The poems Ramanujan translates belong to the Sangam tradition, a body of classical Tamil poetry composed roughly between the first and third centuries CE, written by more than four hundred named poets, and preserved in nine anthologies. These texts have survived, as Ramanujan notes, through “politics, wars, poverty, nature and all dangers” (23). They are both “classical”in the sense of being early and ancient and “classics,” having shaped and sustained a literary tradition across two millennia. To remain ignorant of them, Ramanujan argues, is to remain ignorant of “a unique and major poetic achievement of Indian civilization” (qtd. in Dharwadker 3).

Accessing these poems in English, however, places the translator before a crisis that exceeds matters of vocabulary or syntax. This essay argues that Ramanujan’s experience reveals cultural untranslatability as a structural condition political, historical, epistemological, and ethical that comparative literature cannot resolve by choosing better words or more refined methods. To develop this argument, the essay situates Ramanujan in dialogue with Niranjana’s postcolonial critique of translation, Devy’s call for an Indian translation theory, Bassnett’s disciplinary questioning, and Venuti’s ethics of foreignization. It also engages seriously with the counterargument that Ramanujan’s own practice implies a productive, if partial, optimism about translation’s possibilities.

2. The Tinai System: When Landscape Is a Language

Ramanujan’s translation dilemma is philosophically significant, not merely technically difficult, because of the tinai system at the heart of classical Sangam poetry. He describes it as a “taxonomy, a classification of reality” built into the poetic tradition itself (34). The five landscapes of the Tamil region hills, seashores, agricultural lowlands, wastelands, and pastoral fields each carrying distinct flora, fauna, tribal customs, seasonal associations, and times of day, function as a “symbolic code” through which poets express the emotional phases of a love relationship (Ramanujan 34).

This is not metaphor in the ordinary sense. The tinai system is grammatical: it encodes emotion structurally, not ornamentally. The mountain landscape, associated with the kurinji flower, signals the joy of erotic union between secret lovers. The seashore signals infidelity. The arid wasteland signals the anguish of separation. The pastoral landscape signals patient waiting. The agricultural lowland signals the tender anxiety of the early stages of love. Ramanujan explains the full weight of this code:

When one translates, one is translating not only Tamil, its phonology, grammar and semantics, but this entire intertextual web, this intricate yet lucid second language of landscapes which holds together natural forms with cultural ones in a code, a grammar, a rhetoric, and a poetics. (38)

When Ramanujan places the kurinji flower in an English translation, an English reader encounters a botanical curiosity. A Tamil reader, by contrast, immediately grasps the emotional situation the secret meeting, the season, the time of night, the register of longing from that single word. The translation renders the code invisible. It delivers the surface imagery while stripping away the emotional architecture that gives that imagery its meaning. As Ramanujan asks, “if poetry is made out of, among other things, ‘the best words in the best order,’ and the best orders of the two languages are the mirror images of each other, what is a translator to do?” (25).

No footnote resolves this. An explanatory introduction, as Ramanujan himself writes in his published volumes, converts poetry into anthropology: the reader approaches the poem through a lens of cultural explanation rather than aesthetic immediacy. Cultural competence the capacity to inhabit rather than merely understand a poem’s world cannot be delivered through annotation. It must, as Ramanujan observes, be “earned, repossessed” (qtd. in Dharwadker 7).

3. Ramanujan’s Double Position: Insider and Outsider

What distinguishes Ramanujan’s engagement with this problem is his unusual position within it. He is not a Western scholar encountering Tamil from outside its culture. He is a Tamil speaker, formed by classical Tamil linguistics and literature, who spent most of his academic career at the University of Chicago writing in English for primarily Anglophone audiences. He describes himself as shaped by “Kannada, Tamil, the classics, and folklore,” which provide his “substance,” his “inner forms, images and symbols” sources so continuous with each other that he can “no longer tell what comes from where” (qtd. in Bassnett and Trivedi 7).

This double position inhabiting both Tamil interiority and English externality is precisely what enables Ramanujan to feel the gap between them with such precision. A scholar with no Tamil formation would not register the loss. A scholar who had never left Tamil culture might have no occasion to name it. Suspended between the two, Ramanujan exemplifies what Bassnett identifies as central to the contemporary comparatist’s practice: the scholar who constructs cultures through the act of traversal, through “map-making, travelling, and translating” (47).

Vinay Dharwadker argues that Ramanujan’s translation work serves a double fidelity: to the source poem’s cultural and historical world, and to the foreign reader whom the translator simultaneously attempts to transform into something like a native reader. Dharwadker quotes Ramanujan’s arresting formulation: “Anyone translating a poem into a foreign language is, at the same time, trying to translate a foreign reader into a native one” (5). This claim reframes translation entirely. It is not primarily the movement of a text, but the attempted transformation of a reader’s cultural subjectivity.

4. Niranjana: The Politics Behind the Impossibility

The dilemma Ramanujan frames as aesthetic and epistemological becomes, in Tejaswini Niranjana’s Siting Translation, explicitly political. Niranjana argues that conventional Western translation theory premised on the equivalence of all languages, the neutrality of the translator, and the faithful reproduction of source meaning in the target language is not merely inadequate but ideologically complicit. As she writes, “translation as a practice shapes, and takes shape within, the asymmetrical relations of power that operate under colonialism” (2).

Niranjana grounds this argument historically. Colonial scholars and administrators such as William Jones, who translated Sanskrit legal and literary texts in the late eighteenth century, did not produce neutral linguistic transfers. They actively constructed the colonized subject: presenting Indian culture as static, ahistorical, and administrable, and deploying those constructions to justify British legal codes and governance. Drawing on Walter Benjamin, Jacques Derrida, and Paul de Man, Niranjana demonstrates that translation has long operated as a mechanism for perpetuating unequal power relations among peoples, languages, and cultures (Niranjana 17–32).

Niranjana’s alternative is what she calls a practice of “transactional reading” a translation practice that acknowledges its own constructedness and remains alert to the power relations it inhabits (163). This framework illuminates what Ramanujan is doing when he offers multiple versions of the same Tamil poem. He is demonstrating that the tension cannot be resolved, and that the ethical translator must remain visible in the struggle with it, rather than producing a smooth English text that presents itself as transparent.

5. Devy: The Necessity of an Indian Translation Theory

G.N. Devy approaches the problem from a different angle. In “Translation Theory: An Indian Perspective,” he argues that Western translation theory is structurally inadequate for the Indian multilingual context, because it is built on assumptions about language and meaning that do not hold there. Devy observes that literary translation is “a replication of an ordered sub-system of signs within a given language in another corresponding ordered sub-system of signs within a related language” (135). Translation is never movement between two monolithic, equal-status languages, but always between specific literary systems, each with its own internal ordering.

Devy’s key contribution is the concept of the “translating consciousness” his argument that India’s literary tradition has always been constituted through translation, through the constant movement between Sanskrit and vernacular languages, between oral and written forms, between regional and pan-Indian literary systems. He writes that “Indian literary traditions are essentially traditions of translation,” such that what Western theory treats as an exceptional act is, in the Indian context, the very norm of literary production (qtd. in Bassnett and Trivedi 187).

Devy’s argument also carries immediate contemporary force. His direction of the People’s Linguistic Survey of India rests on the conviction that losing a language is not a linguistic event alone but the destruction of an entire cognitive and epistemological world. In the context of globalization, where English increasingly dominates digital publishing and international cultural exchange, Ramanujan’s concern over the tinai system is one small instance of the much larger emergency Devy names: the erasure of cognitive diversity through linguistic homogenization.

6. Venuti: The Ethics of Making Foreignness Visible

Lawrence Venuti’s contribution is to insist on the ethical stakes of the translator’s methodological choices. In The Translator’s Invisibility (1995), he argues that the dominant Anglo-American tradition of translation has operated through “domestication” the production of fluent, idiomatic translations that read as if originally written in English, erasing all traces of the foreign text’s cultural difference. This fluency conceals the translator’s work and, more consequentially, conceals the violence done to the source culture in the process of making it accessible to Anglophone readers (1–17).

Against domestication, Venuti advocates “foreignization” a deliberate translation practice that preserves the strangeness of the source text, interrupting the fluency of the English text to signal the presence of a different cultural world. A foreignizing translation “entails choosing a foreign text and developing a translation method along lines which are excluded by dominant cultural values in the target language” (242). It makes the reader aware that they are reading a translation that a distance must be crossed, not concealed.

Venuti’s framework reveals a significant tension in Ramanujan’s practice. Ramanujan’s translations are, by most measures, highly readable English poems. Yet by surrounding his translations with extensive scholarly apparatus explanations of the tinai system, multiple versions of the same poem, sustained meditations on what cannot be conveyed Ramanujan achieves foreignization at the level of the book rather than the individual text. He makes visible, through surrounding discourse, the cultural competences that his translations cannot themselves embody. This is an ethical act in Venuti’s sense: it refuses to let the translator disappear.

Susan Bassnett’s broader disciplinary argument reinforces this point. In Comparative Literature: A Critical Introduction, Bassnett argues provocatively that translation studies should be recognized as the more adequate framework for cross-cultural literary study, precisely because it places the mediating act and its losses, choices, and power relations at the center of analysis rather than treating it as a preliminary technicality (46–47). The act of translation is not peripheral to comparative literature. It is the discipline’s most fundamental problem, and it cannot be deferred.

7. The Counterargument: Is Untranslatability the Final Word?

The argument developed above must be tested against the strongest available objection. That objection is offered by Vinay Dharwadker, who contends that Ramanujan’s theory and practice are ultimately more optimistic than a reading centered on loss allows. For Dharwadker, Ramanujan conceives of translation not as a failed attempt to close an impossible gap, but as the creation of a new intertextual network that connects texts across cultures and centuries in genuinely productive ways (Dharwadker 114–20).

Dharwadker draws attention to the afterlives of Ramanujan’s translations: they have appeared in anthologies, in wedding ceremonies, in dance performances, and in artistic works by people who have never read Tamil. These translations have given those originals new lives in an entirely different cultural world. The tinai system’s unavailability to English readers, on this view, is not the destruction of the poem’s meaning but the beginning of a new chain of meaning-making. Translation becomes not a loss but a different kind of gain.

This counterargument is partly persuasive. Yet there remains an ethically important distinction between the new life that a translated poem achieves in its target language and the full cultural meaning of the original in its source. A wedding ceremony using Ramanujan’s English version of a Sangam love poem performs something genuinely moving. But it is not engaging with the poem as a Sangam poem: embedded in the tinai system, addressed within the conventions of akam poetry’s anonymous speakers, participating in a literary tradition with its own grammar of emotion. What the ceremony has is a beautiful English poem about longing. That is not nothing. But it is also not what the Tamil poem is.

The counterargument from optimism remains valuable, nonetheless, because it guards against the slide from cultural untranslatability into fatalism or cultural separatism. Devy’s reminder that Indian literary culture has always been a culture of translation guards against this conclusion. The question is never whether to translate, but how to do so ethically, and how to receive translations with adequate awareness of what they cannot carry.

8. Conclusion: What Comparative Literature Must Learn

Ramanujan’s essay on translating a Tamil poem is not a pessimistic text. It does not conclude that Sangam poetry cannot reach English readers, or that the effort of translation is wasted. What it does argue is that translation across deep cultural difference involves a structural condition of loss and remainder that no improvement in technique can fully eliminate. The tinai system cannot be carried into English because it requires not a vocabulary but a cultural competence, and cultural competences cannot be transferred through texts alone. They must be earned, inhabited, and lived.

The structural condition of untranslatability carries multiple dimensions that this essay has traced. It has political dimensions, as Niranjana demonstrates: it is entangled with the colonial history of translation that rendered Indian culture available and administrable to European eyes. It has epistemological dimensions, as Devy argues: it demands a translation theory rooted in the actual complexity of Indian multilingualism. It has ethical dimensions, as Venuti insists: it requires that translators make choices that preserve the visibility of cultural difference. And it has disciplinary dimensions, as Bassnett shows: it challenges comparative literature to abandon the assumption that world texts are simply available to be compared once the linguistic barrier is technically cleared.

My position, developed in agreement with Ramanujan’s own practice, is that untranslatability is not a wall but a mirror. When we discover that the tinai system cannot cross into English without loss, we have learned something real and irreplaceable about Tamil literary culture, about the assumptions embedded in English as a literary language, and about the irreducible difference between them. That knowledge the knowledge of what cannot cross is itself among the deepest achievements available to comparative literature.

A.K. Ramanujan chose to continue translating despite accepting that the chief difficulty of translation is its impossibility. He chose, in everything he wrote around those translations, to make the impossibility itself visible pedagogically, aesthetically, and ethically. In a world where cultural difference is increasingly erased in the name of accessibility, efficiency, and global reach, that choice is not only an intellectual model for comparative literature. It is a form of resistance.

Works Cited

Bassnett, Susan. Comparative Literature: A Critical Introduction. Blackwell, 1993.

Bassnett, Susan, and Harish Trivedi, editors. Post-Colonial Translation: Theory and Practice. Routledge, 1999.

Devy, G.N. “Translation Theory: An Indian Perspective.” In Another Tongue: Essays on Indian English Literature, Peter Lang, 1993, pp. 129–145.

Dharwadker, Vinay. “A.K. Ramanujan’s Theory and Practice of Translation.” Post-Colonial Translation: Theory and Practice, edited by Susan Bassnett and Harish Trivedi, Routledge, 1999, pp. 114–140.

Niranjana, Tejaswini. Siting Translation: History, Post-Structuralism, and the Colonial Context. U of California P, 1992.

Ramanujan, A.K. “On Translating a Tamil Poem.” The Collected Essays of A.K. Ramanujan, edited by Vinay Dharwadker, Oxford UP, 1999, pp. 23–46.

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