MIGRATION AND URBAN STRUGGLE IN
The Joys of Motherhood
A Reflection of Postcolonial City Life
Assignment of Paper Paper 206: The African Literature
Academic Details
- Name: Krupali Belam
- Roll No : 13
- Enrollment No : 5108240007
- Semester: 4
- Batch: 2024–26
- Email: krupalibelam1204@gmail.com
Assignment Details
- Paper Name: The African Literature
- Paper No.: 206
- Paper Code: 22413
- Topic: Migration and Urban Struggle in The Joys of Motherhood: A Reflection of Postcolonial City Life
- Submitted To: Smt. Sujata Binoy Gardi, Department of English, Maharaja Krishnakumarsinhji Bhavnagar University
- Submission Date: 30 March 2026
Abstract
This research essay examines Buchi Emecheta's The Joys of Motherhood (1979) as a literary document of migration, urban displacement, and gendered economic struggle within the context of British colonial Lagos, Nigeria. Drawing upon verified peer-reviewed scholarship including Teresa L. Derrickson's postcolonial economic analysis in the International Fiction Review; Mohamed Fathi Helaly's study of cultural collision in the International Journal of Applied Linguistics and English Literature; and Zahra Barfi, Hamedreza Kohzadi, and Fatemeh Azizmohammadi's postcolonial feminist reading in the European Online Journal of Natural and Social Sciences this paper argues that Emecheta presents the colonial city not as a site of liberation but as a space of intensified oppression for migrant Igbo women. The essay identifies three interlocking structures of domination defining Nnu Ego's urban experience: colonial capitalism, patriarchal tradition, and communal disintegration. A counterargument drawn from Nelly Gatuti Kamankura and Jackson Gikunda Njogu's black feminist reading (IJRISS, 2024) which positions Adaku's trajectory as evidence of urban agency is engaged and critically assessed. The analysis ultimately maintains that individual agency is insufficient in the face of systemic structural violence, and that Emecheta's Lagos remains a mirror of modern city life's deepest inequalities.
Keywords
The Joys of Motherhood · Buchi Emecheta · postcolonial Lagos · rural-to-urban migration · colonial capitalism · double colonization · Igbo women · gender oppression · urban displacement · postcolonial feminist theory
Table of Contents
1. Introduction
2. Research Question and Hypothesis
3. Theoretical Framework
4. Migration as Forced Displacement: From Ibuza to Lagos
5. The Colonial City as a Space of Alienation
6. Urban Poverty and the Erosion of Identity
7. Double Colonization: Gender and Empire in the Colonial City
8. Counterargument: Does Urban Migration Offer Agency?
9. Critical Scholarly Disagreements
10. Conclusion
11. Works Cited
1. Introduction
Buchi Emecheta's The Joys of Motherhood (1979) occupies a foundational position in the canon of postcolonial African literature. Set in colonial Lagos during the 1930s and 1940s, the novel follows Nnu Ego, an Igbo woman from the rural village of Ibuza who is displaced into the colonial city following the failure of her first marriage. On the surface, the novel appears to be a story about motherhood, fertility, and the cultural expectations placed upon African women. Upon sustained critical engagement, however, it emerges as a meticulously observed examination of migration, urban poverty, gendered labor, and the violent encounter between indigenous African social structures and British colonial capitalism.
The novel's title is deliberately and profoundly ironic. There are, as Emecheta makes devastatingly clear through Nnu Ego's life, no joys in this motherhood only sacrifice, poverty, loneliness, and institutional invisibility. Teresa L. Derrickson, in her landmark essay in the International Fiction Review, argues that the hardships Nnu Ego endures do not emanate from Igbo patriarchy alone, but from a historical collision between the values of indigenous African culture and the priorities of British colonial capitalism (Derrickson 40). Mohamed Fathi Helaly, writing in the International Journal of Applied Linguistics and English Literature, similarly contends that Nnu Ego "falls a victim of the tension of the collision of these two conflicting cultures" the institutions of traditional Ibo society on one hand, and the institutions of Western Europe on the other (Helaly 117). Zahra Barfi, Hamedreza Kohzadi, and Fatemeh Azizmohammadi further situate the novel within a postcolonial feminist framework, demonstrating that Lagos reshaped by colonial domination enforces a new sexual division of labor that exploits migrant women (Barfi, Kohzadi, and Azizmohammadi 30).
This essay contends that The Joys of Motherhood constitutes a sustained literary critique of modern city life as experienced by migrant women in colonial Nigeria. Emecheta's Lagos is a space where the promises of modernity economic improvement, social mobility, greater freedom are systematically withheld from its most vulnerable inhabitants. The essay examines the mechanisms of this withholding: colonial capitalism's extraction of women's labor, the disintegration of communal support networks, the double colonization of gender and empire, and the psychic costs of displacement. A counterargument is also taken seriously: that the city offers possibilities unavailable in the village, as evidenced by the character of Adaku and supported by Nelly Gatuti Kamankura and Jackson Gikunda Njogu's black feminist reading of the novel.
2. Research Question and Hypothesis
Research Question
In what ways does Buchi Emecheta's The Joys of Motherhood portray the experience of rural-to-urban migration as a form of structural violence against Igbo women in colonial Lagos, and to what extent does the novel reflect broader sociological patterns of gendered urban exclusion in postcolonial African cities?
Hypothesis
This essay hypothesizes that Emecheta's novel presents urban migration not as a journey toward liberation or economic opportunity, but as a process of compounding subjugation, in which the colonial city intensifies pre-existing patriarchal structures by removing the communal and economic safeguards that previously moderated those structures in the rural context. Nnu Ego's trajectory from Ibuza to Lagos illustrates that modern city life as constituted by colonial capitalism creates a specific form of violence against migrant women that is simultaneously economic, cultural, gendered, and spatial. This hypothesis is tested against the counterargument that urban environments can, under certain conditions, empower migrant women through entrepreneurial activity and alternative identity formation.
3. Theoretical Framework
The analytical framework of this essay draws from three intersecting theoretical traditions: postcolonial feminist theory, sociological migration studies, and literary critical approaches to African women's writing.
The primary postcolonial feminist lens is provided by Chandra Talpade Mohanty's concept of solidarity through shared structures of struggle against colonialism, capitalism, racism, and patriarchy, as applied to Emecheta's text by Barfi, Kohzadi, and Azizmohammadi (26). Mohanty's insistence that Third World women must be analyzed within their specific historical and material conditions rather than as a homogeneous global category is central to reading Nnu Ego's predicament as structurally produced rather than individually determined.
The concept of "double colonization," theorized by Kirsten Holst Petersen and Anna Rutherford in their influential critical collection, provides a crucial supplementary lens. Double colonization refers to the overlapping oppression faced by African women under both indigenous patriarchal systems and European imperial rule (Petersen and Rutherford). This framework is particularly productive for analyzing Lagos as a space where both systems of domination converge and reinforce one another. Lassana Kanté's recent sociological literary criticism in the International Journal of Literature and Arts provides contemporary empirical grounding, arguing that colonialism has fundamentally reorganized the social phenomena of African cities, including gender relations, through the imposition of colonial order (Kanté 170).
From literary feminist criticism, Sylvester Okoye-Ugwu's womanist analysis in the Ikenga: International Journal of Institute of African Studies enriches the framework by emphasizing that sexism and class consciousness operate as "crucial interlocking factors" in the novel's narrative architecture (Okoye-Ugwu 60). And Michela Rosa Di Candia's recent study of mothering performativity in the Journal of the Motherhood Initiative for Research and Community Involvement provides a contemporary gender-studies perspective on how Emecheta dramatizes motherhood as a system of social compulsion rather than a freely chosen identity (Di Candia).
4. Migration as Forced Displacement: From Ibuza to Lagos
Migration in The Joys of Motherhood is not an expression of individual agency or ambition. It is an act of social compulsion driven by the shame of barrenness and the failure of Nnu Ego's first marriage. Her movement from the village of Ibuza to colonial Lagos is, from the outset, a displacement rather than a departure: an expulsion from the social fabric of one world into the disorienting machinery of another. This distinction is essential for any critical reading of the novel's engagement with city life.
Derrickson identifies this transition as the central structural problem of the text. She argues that Ibo women like Nnu Ego are "subjected to new forms of exploitation as they are asked to assume traditional duties and responsibilities under a newly imported economic system that unlike their native system fails to validate or reward them for such work" (Derrickson 44). In Ibuza, women's domestic and agricultural labor existed within a system of reciprocal social obligations. In Lagos, this reciprocity is abolished. The colonial city demands the same labor or more but incorporates it into no structure of recognition or reward.
Helaly's analysis of cultural collision in the novel illuminates this dynamic with precision. Nnu Ego, he argues, is victimized because of the impossible double demand placed upon her: she must satisfy both "what the village (Ibuza) community demands her to do" and "what the rules of a European political regime requires her to be" (Helaly 117). What makes this collision distinctly urban is its intensity and its inescapability. In the village, the patriarchal system at least offered women recognized roles and communal belonging. In Lagos, Nnu Ego is suspended between two systems of expectation and belongs fully to neither.
Kanté's sociological literary reading of the novel reinforces this point, demonstrating that Emecheta situates her characters within a Lagos where "colonialism has meaningfully participated in the change of many things in African world" (Kanté 170). The colonial city is not simply a background setting in The Joys of Motherhood; it is an active, coercive force that reshapes the identities, relationships, and possibilities of every character within it. For Nnu Ego, this reshaping is catastrophic: she enters the city as a person with a coherent, if constrained, social identity and is progressively stripped of it by the combined pressures of poverty, isolation, and urban invisibility.
5. The Colonial City as a Space of Alienation
Lagos in Emecheta's novel is not a morally neutral urban environment. It is a colonial city structured, spatially and economically, according to British imperial priorities and Emecheta presents it as producing a profound and distinctive form of alienation for its African inhabitants, particularly its women. One of the novel's most significant early episodes is Nnu Ego's discovery that her husband Nnaife works as a washerman in the household of a white colonial employer. The scene dramatizes multiple simultaneous humiliations: Nnaife's emasculation in performing labor traditionally associated with women; the household's spatial organization around the white employer's comfort; and Nnu Ego's sudden, vertiginous recognition that the social hierarchies she absorbed in Ibuza have been entirely overwritten by colonial hierarchy.
Derrickson captures the structural significance of this moment by arguing that colonialism not simply Igbo patriarchy was "a far greater threat" to the collective well-being of Ibo women (Derrickson 41). The colonial city forces Nnaife into a subject position that undermines his capacity to fulfill the provider role that Igbo gender ideology assigns to men; the burden of this institutional failure falls, as it consistently does in the novel, upon Nnu Ego. This is not a personal failing on Nnaife's part it is a structural consequence of the colonial labor system.
Barfi, Kohzadi, and Azizmohammadi develop this argument through Mohanty's postcolonial feminist framework, arguing that in Lagos, "invoking the native patriarchal division of labor, capitalism redefines a sexual division of labor" such that women's reproductive and domestic work is systematically extracted without compensation (Barfi, Kohzadi, and Azizmohammadi 30). The colonial city does not simply fail to reward Nnu Ego's labor; it actively reproduces the ideological conditions that make her labor appear natural, inevitable, and therefore unworthy of recognition. This is urban alienation in its most material form: the conversion of a person into a resource.
Di Candia's recent analysis of mothering performativity in the novel extends this insight by demonstrating that Emecheta frames motherhood itself as a "system of social compulsion" in the colonial urban context, in which Nnu Ego's reproductive labor is performed for the benefit of a colonial social order that excludes her from its rewards (Di Candia). The city demands her children future workers, future subjects while providing her with nothing in return for their production.
6. Urban Poverty and the Erosion of Identity
One of the most devastating dimensions of Nnu Ego's urban experience is the gradual erosion of her sense of self. In the Igbo cultural framework that Emecheta depicts, identity is not an individual construction but a relational achievement formed through a woman's relationships to her father, her husband, her children, and her community, and through the roles she performs within those relationships. In Ibuza, even a woman of Nnu Ego's social misfortune possesses the architecture of an identity: she is the daughter of the great chief Agbadi, a woman of recognized lineage whose barrenness is a tragedy precisely because it represents a failure within a system that otherwise sees and values her.
In Lagos, this architecture collapses. Nnu Ego becomes a mother she will have nine children but the city transforms motherhood from a source of social dignity into an economic burden of overwhelming scale. She sells firewood and cigarettes on the street; she goes without food so her children can eat; she ages rapidly and visibly under the weight of her responsibilities. Derrickson identifies the crucial passage in the novel in which Nnu Ego herself articulates this condition: she reflects that "all she had inherited from her agrarian background was the responsibility and none of the booty" (Derrickson 44, citing Emecheta). This is a devastating insight: the colonial city has taken the obligations of Igbo womanhood and extracted them from the social context that once gave them meaning and reciprocity.
Okoye-Ugwu's womanist analysis reinforces this reading, demonstrating that Emecheta employs "the politics of sexism and class consciousness as crucial interlocking factors" to show how Nnu Ego's poverty is not individual misfortune but structural overdetermination (Okoye-Ugwu 60). Nnu Ego is poor because the colonial city offers no formal economic role to migrant women; because her husband's wages are insufficient and intermittently available; because the communal structures that would have distributed her burden in Ibuza have no presence in Lagos.
Kamankura and Njogu's black feminist reading of the novel offers a slightly different lens on this dynamic, emphasizing how Emecheta uses "contrasting aspects of womanhood" embodied by Nnu Ego and Adaku to explore what defines a woman in the African colonial context and how cultural expectations are navigated under conditions of urban poverty (Kamankura and Njogu). Their analysis is important because it resists reducing Nnu Ego's experience to simple victimhood, insisting on the agency however constrained that she exercises within the structures that bind her. However, as will be argued in the counterargument section, this agency operates within such narrow parameters that it can barely be called liberating.
7. Double Colonization: Gender and Empire in the Colonial City
The concept of double colonization the overlapping oppression of African women under both indigenous patriarchal systems and European imperial rule is indispensable for understanding the specific form of subjugation that the colonial city imposes upon Nnu Ego. Petersen and Rutherford, in their influential critical collection A Double Colonization: Colonial and Post-Colonial Women's Writing, establish the theoretical framework. Applying this framework to Emecheta's text, Barfi, Kohzadi, and Azizmohammadi argue that in Lagos, "the colonial patriarchal policy intensifies the marginalization and oppression of the disenfranchised Third World women" by forcing them to inhabit both the demands of indigenous patriarchy and the economic logic of colonial capitalism simultaneously (Barfi, Kohzadi, and Azizmohammadi 34).
This double bind operates with particular clarity in the figure of Nnaife. The colonial labor system emasculates Nnaife by forcing him into servile domestic employment; injured masculine pride leads him to reassert patriarchal authority over Nnu Ego at home. She bears the consequences of a system that injures both of them but injures them differently. As Helaly observes, Nnu Ego's "hardships are the result of the clash between the Ibo traditions and the colonized Lagos" neither system is benign, and both systems converge in the space of her body and her labor (Helaly 117).
Derrickson's reading of the economic dimensions of this double colonisation is the most analytically rigorous in the existing scholarship. She demonstrates that in the pre-colonial Ibo economy, women exercised real if subordinate, economic participation through agriculture, craft production, and local trading networks. Colonialism abolished these forms of participation by reorganizing the economy around male wage labor in service of British commercial interests. The result is that Nnu Ego loses access to the very economic activities that once, however imperfectly, anchored her social identity. She is doubly expropriated: first by the patriarchal system that subordinates her reproductive labor, and then by the colonial system that renders that labor economically invisible (Derrickson 44–45).
Kanté's sociological literary analysis adds an important spatial dimension to this argument, demonstrating that the physical city of Lagos its streets, markets, and domestic spaces is itself organized according to the logic of colonial double exploitation (Kanté 170–171). Nnu Ego's street-side peddling, her cramped domestic quarters, her exclusion from formal markets: all of these are not accidental features of her poverty but structural effects of how the colonial city organizes space according to race, class, and gender.
8. Counterargument: Does Urban Migration Offer Agency?
Any honest critical engagement with The Joys of Motherhood must take seriously a significant counterargument: the novel itself contains the seeds of a different narrative of urban womanhood. The character of Adaku Nnaife's junior wife follows a trajectory that stands in dramatic contrast to Nnu Ego's. Where Nnu Ego remains loyal to the ideology of traditional motherhood to the point of self-destruction, Adaku chooses to abandon that ideology entirely. She rejects her role as second wife, establishes herself as an independent trader, and by the novel's account prospers materially, educates her daughters, and builds an autonomous life.
Kamankura and Njogu, in their black feminist reading of the novel, explicitly draw attention to this contrast, arguing that Emecheta uses Nnu Ego and Adaku to explore "contrasting aspects of womanhood" and to suggest that the colonial city, for all its violence, also contains possibilities unavailable in the village (Kamankura and Njogu). From this perspective, the city is not simply a space of oppression but a site of contested meaning a place where some women do manage to redefine themselves outside the constraints of traditional gender ideology.
Di Candia's analysis of mothering performativity offers a related insight, suggesting that Emecheta is interested not only in the structures that confine women but in the ways women "perform" or resist those structures, sometimes with surprising results (Di Candia). Adaku's refusal to perform the role of traditional wife is, from this perspective, a form of agency imperfect and costly, but real.
I find this counterargument intellectually serious and partially persuasive. Emecheta is not a simple pessimist, and she is not arguing that the colonial city offers nothing. Adaku's success is real within the novel's fictional world, and it points toward genuine possibilities. However, I maintain that Adaku's trajectory functions in the text not as a redemptive alternative to Nnu Ego's fate but as a structural contrast that intensifies our understanding of why Nnu Ego cannot access those same alternatives. Adaku succeeds by abandoning motherhood as the organizing principle of her identity by choosing herself over her social obligations. This is a genuinely available choice within the novel, but it is available only to a woman willing and able to pay the enormous cultural and psychological cost of self-disinheritance. Nnu Ego cannot make this choice: not because she lacks intelligence or courage, but because her identity is so completely constituted by the ideology of motherhood that to abandon it would be to cease to exist as a self.
Emecheta's deeper point, as Derrickson argues, is that the specific form of agency available to women like Adaku is itself a product of the colonial situation a survival strategy that requires individuals to absorb the costs of a system that should be dismantled entirely (Derrickson 45–46). The city offers choices; but the choices it offers are not free, and the women who take them are not liberated they have simply found a different way to survive within the same structure of domination.
9. Critical Scholarly Disagreements
The scholarly literature on The Joys of Motherhood reflects substantive and productive disagreements about the novel's primary critical target. A significant tradition of scholarship focuses on the novel's critique of indigenous Igbo patriarchy, reading Emecheta primarily as a feminist critic of traditional African gender ideology. This reading, represented by early scholarship in the Colby Library Quarterly (Umeh) and later by numerous feminist critics is not incorrect, but as Derrickson persuasively demonstrates, it is incomplete (Derrickson 40–41). Reading the novel only as a critique of Igbo patriarchy obscures the equally significant and Derrickson argues, more fundamental critique of colonial capitalism.
Okoye-Ugwu's womanist intervention in the scholarship represents a different and valuable scholarly perspective. Rather than choosing between a feminist critique of tradition and a postcolonial critique of colonialism, Okoye-Ugwu argues that the novel operates through "the politics of sexism and class consciousness as crucial interlocking factors," suggesting that no single theoretical framework is adequate to the text's complexity (Okoye-Ugwu 60). I find this position intellectually compelling: the novel resists reduction, and its richness lies precisely in the way it holds multiple critical arguments in productive tension.
Helaly's reading introduces yet another productive dimension, emphasizing that the novel's critical force derives from its portrayal of cultural collision rather than from a straightforwardly feminist or postcolonial argument (Helaly 117). This emphasis on cultural collision the simultaneous operation of incompatible cultural logics in the same social space enriches rather than undermines the essay's central thesis: the colonial city is precisely the space where these collisions are most acute and most destructive.
The most recent scholarship particularly Di Candia's performativity analysis and Kamankura and Njogu's black feminist reading reflects a contemporary critical turn toward greater attention to the novel's moments of resistance and the forms of agency available even to deeply constrained characters. These readings are important correctives to any reading that would reduce Nnu Ego to pure victimhood. However, they do not undermine the essay's central argument: that the structural conditions of colonial urban life produce forms of domination so powerful and so pervasive that individual agency however real is insufficient to overcome them.
10. Conclusion
The Joys of Motherhood is a work of extraordinary moral seriousness and analytical precision. Emecheta does not romanticize the colonial city, nor does she idealize the rural village it has displaced. She presents both with unflinching clarity, demonstrating through the accumulation of specific, concrete details of daily life in Lagos how the intersection of colonial capitalism and patriarchal tradition produces a form of urban existence that is, for women like Nnu Ego, essentially unlivable.
Migration, in this novel, is not a journey toward possibility. It is a form of coerced displacement that removes women from the limited but real protections of communal rural life and deposits them in a city organized entirely around their economic exclusion and social invisibility. The colonial city of Lagos alienates, impoverishes, isolates, and ultimately destroys its migrant women not through dramatic violence, but through the patient, relentless application of economic marginalization and ideological entrapment.
The counterargument that Adaku's story demonstrates the city's potential as a space of agency has been engaged seriously. Kamankura and Njogu's black feminist reading rightly insists on the complexity of Emecheta's portrayal of womanhood, and Di Candia's performativity analysis usefully foregrounds the moments of resistance within the text. However, as the analysis of both the novel and the critical scholarship demonstrates, Adaku's success comes at the price of her cultural and maternal identity a price that must itself be understood as a product of the same structural violence that victimizes Nnu Ego. The two women represent not a binary of success and failure, but two equally tragic responses to an impossible situation.
Scholars including Derrickson, Barfi, Kohzadi, and Azizmohammadi, Helaly, Kanté, Okoye-Ugwu, Di Candia, and Kamankura and Njogu collectively demonstrate that The Joys of Motherhood operates on multiple analytical registers simultaneously as a feminist text, a postcolonial critique, a sociological document, and a work of profound literary art. Its most urgent contribution is its unflinching portrait of what modern city life demands from those whom it excludes and what it fails, systematically and structurally, to provide. In doing so, Emecheta creates a novel that speaks not only to 1930s Nigeria but to the millions of internal migrants particularly women who continue to inhabit the margins of the world's rapidly expanding cities.
11. Works Cited
Barfi, Zahra, Hamedreza Kohzadi, and Fatemeh Azizmohammadi. "A Study of Buchi Emecheta's The Joys of Motherhood in the Light of Chandra Talpade Mohanty: A Postcolonial Feminist Theory." European Online Journal of Natural and Social Sciences, vol. 4, no. 1, 2015, pp. 26–38. ResearchGate, www.researchgate.net/publication/333296130. Accessed 27 Mar. 2026.
Derrickson, Teresa L. "Class, Culture, and the Colonial Context: The Status of Women in Buchi Emecheta's The Joys of Motherhood." International Fiction Review, vol. 29, nos. 1–2, 2002, pp. 40–51. journals.lib.unb.ca/index.php/IFR/article/view/7715. Accessed 27 Mar. 2026.
Di Candia, Michela Rosa. "Mothering Performativity in Buchi Emecheta's The Joys of Motherhood." Journal of the Motherhood Initiative for Research and Community Involvement, vol. 15, no. 1, 2025. jarm.journals.yorku.ca/index.php/jarm/article/view/40729. Accessed 27 Mar. 2026.
Emecheta, Buchi. The Joys of Motherhood. George Braziller, 1979.
Helaly, Mohamed Fathi. "Cultural Collision and Women Victimization: A Study of Buchi Emecheta's The Joys of Motherhood (1979)." International Journal of Applied Linguistics and English Literature, vol. 5, no. 2, 2016, pp. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/306159966_Cultural_collision_and_women_victimization_A_study_of_Buchi_Emecheta's_the_joys_of_motherhood_1979 Accessed 27 Mar. 2026.
Kamankura, Nelly Gatuti, and Jackson Gikunda Njogu. "Motherhood or Womanhood? A Closer Analysis of Buchi Emecheta's The Joys of Motherhood." International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science, vol. 8, no. 10, 2024, pp. 1–12. https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2024.8100214 Accessed 27 Mar. 2026.
Kanté, Lassana. "Exploring Society Through Literature: A Study of Habila's Oil on Water and Emecheta's The Joys of Motherhood." International Journal of Literature and Arts, vol. 13, no. 6, 2025, pp. 168–177. doi:10.11648/j.ijla.20251306.17. Accessed 27 Mar. 2026.
Okoye-Ugwu, Sylvester. "Is the Hood in Womanhood the Hood in Motherhood? An Analysis of Emecheta's The Joys of Motherhood." Ikenga: International Journal of Institute of African Studies, vol. 25, no. 4, 2024, pp. 55–70. doi:10.53836/ijia/2024/25/4/004. Accessed 27 Mar. 2026.
Petersen, Kirsten Holst, and Anna Rutherford, editors. A Double Colonization: Colonial and Post-Colonial Women's Writing. Dangaroo Press, 1986.
